Morphology, in linguistics, is the study of the structure and form of words. It examines how words are formed from smaller units called morphemes, which are the smallest meaningful parts of a word. Morphology focuses on how these morphemes (such as roots, prefixes, and suffixes) combine to create words and convey meaning.
In biblical studies, morphological analysis involves breaking down words into their parts to understand their grammatical forms, such as tense, voice, mood, gender, case, and number, especially in languages like Biblical Hebrew, Aramaic, and Greek. It’s an essential tool for understanding the specific nuances in ancient texts, as it helps clarify how word forms affect meaning and interpretation.
Morphological analysis involves examining the structure and formation of words. This analysis looks at how words are formed, how they relate to other words in the language, and how they change form to convey different meanings.
In the context of biblical studies, morphological analysis helps scholars understand the original languages of the Bible (Hebrew, Aramaic, and Greek) by analyzing the forms of words, such as:
- Roots: The base forms of words that convey the core meaning.
- Prefixes: Attached to the beginning of words to modify meaning.
- Suffixes: Attached to the end of words to modify meaning or indicate grammatical relationships.
- Inflections: Changes in the form of words to express different grammatical categories such as tense, mood, voice, aspect, person, number, gender, and case.
For example, in Hebrew, the root כ.ת.ב (k.t.v.) means “to write.” By analyzing its different forms (like כָּתַבְתִּי – “I wrote”, כָּתוֹב – “to write”, כְּתוּבִים – “writings”), scholars can understand the different grammatical and syntactical usages of the root.
Abbreviations
These abbreviations help clarify the grammatical details of Hebrew words in morphological and syntactic analyses, and here is a complete list of grammatical abbreviations with their meanings:
Person
- 1cs: First person common singular (e.g., “I” or “my”)
- 1cp: First person common plural (e.g., “we” or “our”)
- 2ms: Second person masculine singular (e.g., “you” for a male)
- 2fs: Second person feminine singular (e.g., “you” for a female)
- 2mp: Second person masculine plural (e.g., “you all” for a group of men or mixed group)
- 2fp: Second person feminine plural (e.g., “you all” for a group of women)
- 3ms: Third person masculine singular (e.g., “he” or “his”)
- 3fs: Third person feminine singular (e.g., “she” or “her”)
- 3mp: Third person masculine plural (e.g., “they” or “their” for a group of men or mixed group)
- 3fp: Third person feminine plural (e.g., “they” or “their” for a group of women)
Gender
- ms: Masculine singular
- fs: Feminine singular
- mp: Masculine plural
- fp: Feminine plural
- cs: Common singular (can refer to either gender)
- cp: Common plural (can refer to either gender)
Number
- s: Singular (one person or thing)
- p: Plural (more than one person or thing)
Overview of Hebrew Verb Binyanim
| Binyan | Description | Common Uses | Example Meaning | Typical Transliteration |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Qal (קַל) | The simple or basic form | Active voice, simple action | “He wrote” | katav |
| Niphal (נִפְעַל) | Passive or reflexive form of Qal | Passive voice, reflexive action | “He was written” / “He wrote himself” | nif’al |
| Piel (פִּעֵל) | Intensive or causative form | Emphasizes or intensifies the action | “He smashed” (instead of “He broke”) | pi’el |
| Pual (פֻּעַל) | Passive form of Piel | Passive intensive action | “It was smashed” | pu’al |
| Hiphil (הִפְעִיל) | Causative form | Indicates causing an action to occur | “He caused to write” | hif’il |
| Hophal (הָפְעַל) | Passive form of Hiphil | Causative action in the passive voice | “It was caused to be written” | hof’al |
| Hufal (הֻפְעַל) | Passive form related to Hiphil | Rarely used, passive causative | “It was caused to be sent” | huf’al |
| Hitpael (הִתְפַּעֵל) | Reflexive or reciprocal form | Indicates the subject is acting on itself or mutually with others | “He cleaned himself” | hitpa’el |
Explanation:
Qal (קַל): The most basic form of the verb, often used for simple active verbs. Example: בָּרָא (bara) – “He created.” While it’s often considered the “simple” form, it can also convey a variety of meanings beyond simple active voice, such as habitual, potential, or permissive actions.
Niphal (נִפְעַל): The passive or reflexive form of Qal. Used when the subject receives the action. Example: נִבְרָא (nivra) – “He was created.” While it’s primarily passive, it can also express reflexive or reciprocal actions in certain contexts.
Piel (פִּעֵל): Indicates an intensive action or a repeated action. Example: שִׁבֵּר (shibber) – “He shattered” (instead of “He broke”). It can also express iterative or frequentative actions, not just intensification.
Pual (פֻּעַל): The passive counterpart of Piel. Indicates that the action is done to the subject with intensity. Example: שֻׁבַּר (shubbar) – “It was shattered.”
Hiphil (הִפְעִיל): Denotes causative action, where the subject causes the action to happen to another. Example: הִכְתִּיב (hiktiv) – “He caused to write.”
Hophal (הָפְעַל): The passive form of Hiphil, where the subject receives the causative action. Example: הָכְתַּב (hok’tav) – “It was made to write.”
Hufal (הֻפְעַל): A passive form related to Hiphil. Rarely used, it indicates a passive causative action. Example: הֻשְׁלַח (hushlakh) – “It was caused to be sent.” While it’s indeed rare, it’s not entirely obsolete and can still be found in certain contexts, particularly in Biblical Hebrew.
Hitpael (הִתְפַּעֵל): Reflexive or reciprocal, indicating the subject is acting upon itself or with mutual action. Example: הִתְכַּתֵּב (hitkattev) – “He corresponded” or “He wrote to himself.”
These binyanim play a crucial role in understanding the nuance and function of verbs in Hebrew, making them vital in detailed morphological analyses of the Tanakh.
* Binyanim and Voice: Hebrew doesn’t have a strict active/passive voice system like English. Binyanim often overlap in their functions, and the context determines the precise meaning.
* Binyanim and Tense: Hebrew verbs don’t have specific tense markers like English. Tense is often implied by the context, particles, or other verbal forms.
* Binyanim and Aspect: Hebrew verbs can express different aspects (perfective, imperfective, etc.) through various means, including binyanim, prefixes, and suffixes.
What is Wayyiqtol? Understanding the Sequential Storytelling Form in Biblical Hebrew
The term “wayyiqtol” is used to describe a common Hebrew verb form that appears frequently in biblical narrative. It combines two elements:
- The prefix “וַ” (vav) – This prefix often means “and” but, when combined with certain verb forms, it signals a sequence of actions in a story, like “and then…”.
- “yiqtol” – This is a verb form that typically describes an action that will happen or is ongoing. But when paired with the “vav” prefix in biblical Hebrew, it often describes an action in the past.
Why “wayyiqtol”?
In storytelling, wayyiqtol is frequently used to move the narrative forward, especially in historical and sequential accounts. Think of it as a way of saying “and then this happened, and then that happened…”
Example of Wayyiqtol from the Tanakh
Here’s an example of wayyiqtol from the Tanakh:
Genesis 37:23-24
In the story of Joseph and his brothers:
וַיְהִי כַּאֲשֶׁר־בָּא יוֹסֵף אֶל־אֶחָיו וַיַּפְשִׁיטוּ אֶת־כֻּתָּנְתּוֹ אֶת־כְּתֹנֶת הַפַּסִּים אֲשֶׁר עָלָיו׃ וַיִּקָּחֻהוּ וַיַּשְׁלִכוּ אֹתוֹ הַבֹּרָה
“And it came to pass, when Joseph came to his brothers, that they stripped Joseph of his coat, the coat of many colors that was on him; and they took him and threw him into the pit…”
Here, we see a series of wayyiqtol forms:
- וַיַּפְשִׁיטוּ (vayafshiṭu) – “and they stripped”
- וַיִּקָּחֻהוּ (vayyiqāḥuhu) – “and they took him”
- וַיַּשְׁלִכוּ (vayyashlikhu) – “and they threw”
These verbs move the action forward step-by-step, showing each action in sequence as the brothers encounter Joseph, take his coat, and throw him into the pit. This passage illustrates how wayyiqtol gives the narrative flow, leading the reader through each consecutive event.
Wayyiqtol gives the text a flow, leading readers through the events in the order they happened, almost like watching a scene unfold step-by-step.
Key Characteristics of the Wayyiqtol Verb Form
- The “Consecutive Perfect”: Wayyiqtol is often referred to as the “consecutive perfect” tense. This term highlights its role in sequencing actions.
- The Narrative Tense: It’s also known as the “narrative tense” because it’s primarily used in narrative contexts.
- Flexibility in Time Reference: While wayyiqtol is often associated with past actions, it can sometimes refer to future actions, especially in prophetic contexts.
- Emphasis on Sequence: The primary function of wayyiqtol is to link events in a sequence, emphasizing the chronological order of actions.
Variant Readings
- v.l. : varia lectio
- vll. : variae lectiones
Two-Letter Abbreviations of Tanakh Books
- Gn – Genesis
- Ex – Exodus
- Lv – Leviticus
- Nm – Numbers
- Dt – Deuteronomy
- Js – Joshua
- Jg – Judges
- Sm – Samuel (1 and 2 Samuel combined)
- Kg – Kings (1 and 2 Kings combined)
- Is – Isaiah
- Jr – Jeremiah
- Ez – Ezekiel
- Ho – Hosea
- Jl – Joel
- Am – Amos
- Ob – Obadiah
- Jh – Jonah
- Mc – Micah
- Na – Nahum
- Hb – Habakkuk
- Zp – Zephaniah
- Hg – Haggai
- Zc – Zechariah
- Ml – Malachi
- Ps – Psalms
- Jb – Job
- Pr – Proverbs
- Ru – Ruth
- So – Song of Songs
- Ec – Ecclesiastes
- Lm – Lamentations
- Es – Esther
- Dn – Daniel
- Ezr – Ezra-Nehemiah (combined)
- Ch – Chronicles (1 and 2 Chronicles combined)